NR1 was situated beside the Navy's main radio receiving Station, NR2. SIGINT_Phase_II - National Reconnaissance Office The executive order, however, prohibits the collection, retention, or dissemination of information about U.S. persons except pursuant to procedures established by the head of the agency and approved by the Attorney General. Signals Intelligence has played a role throughout the history of the United States. impairment of a signals intelligence collection platform Sie haben die Wahl", "Memorandum for Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Subject: Revelation of the Fact of Satellite Reconnaissance in Connection with the Submission of Arms Limitation Agreements to Congress", "Memorandum for [then-Director of Central Intelligence] Mr. Bush, Subject: Declassification of Satellite Reconnaissance", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Signals_intelligence_operational_platforms_by_nation&oldid=1134426688. The critical thinking and vitality required to accomplish our strategic goals depend on a diverse workforce, divergent points of view, and a fully-inclusive environment. Sweden uses the ArgoSystems/Condor AR-700 series SIGINT. Cognetivity's CognICA TM uses Artificial Intelligence and machine learning techniques to help detect the earliest signs of cognitive impairment by testing the performance of large areas of the brain. Impairment of a Signals Intelligence collection platform or an unexplained compromise of U.S. Intelligence Operations are examples of (Lesson 1: Foreign Intelligence Entities, Page 10) An anomaly The Internet and social networking services have allowed (Lesson 3: Internet and Social Networking Services, Page 2) Current USN warships carry some version of the AN/SLQ-32 electronic warfare system, which has ESM capabilities. Signals intelligence is a subset of intelligence collection management. [32] The system will be getting incremental improvements, which reflect both improvements in technology and in military organizational structure [78][unreliable source?] guide to emergency management and related terms, definitions, concepts, acronyms, organizations, programs, guidance, executive orders & legislation These two warships were also assigned with UKUSA station designationsNZC334 and NZC335 respectivelyand were deployed on six-week missions to the South Pacific and Southeast Asia during the late 1980s and 1990s.[46]. The second Orfeo is scheduled to launch in early 2008. They also called for "the reinforcement of our capabilities in the field of intelligence/". The system fits into 3 HMMWVs with mounted standard integrated command postlightweight multipurpose shelters, tunnel-mounted power generation units, and towed 2.4 meter (C, Kuband) and 6.1 meter (C, Ku, X-band) antennas. NONLITERAL COLLECTION FOR STRATEGIC INTELLIGENCE AND COMBAT.docx How does the NSA ensure its employees are aware of and abide by the regulations? [5] Campbell associates Sugar Grove with NSA programs called TIMBERLINE, LANFORD, LATERAL, and SALUTE. ES contains the AN/BLQ-10 SIGINT system, which gives detection, emitter location and MASINT identification, direction finding, and strategic intelligence support. "To receive satellite signals only parabolic antennas are used. Full-Time. In a Ministre de la Dfense 12/18/2004 statement, France announced[98] that Helios 2A is part of an exchange program planned with the SAR-Lupe and Italian COSMO-SKYMED systems, under development respectively in Germany and Italy. Italy is developing the Cosmo-Skymed X-band polarimetric SAR, to fly on two of the satellites. Technology, in many regards, has changed intelligence collection. The new facility, becoming ops in 2010, is equipped with 4 large 25m radomes covering dish antennas intended to monitor and intercept voice and metadata SATellite COMmunications. Note that Essaim is a third-generation technology demonstrator with some operational capability. counterintelligence (CI) pre- and post-foreign travel briefs support you by providing: - _ defensive actions needed to defeat threats _ information on local and regional threat environments _ reportable activity guidelines _ travel area intelligence and security practices and procedures In 1992, a tactically oriented Counter-Electronic Warfare Department was created. In both these cases, SIGINT represents a very major portion of the growth in assets. Signals Intelligence Programs and Activities - Russia / Soviet This information is frequently in foreign languages and dialects, is protected by codes and other security measures, and involves complex technical characteristics. France operates the C-160 aircraft twin-turboprop tactical transport, due to be replaced by the Airbus Military A400M transport when that enters service from 2009. Washington, D.C., March 8, 2022 - Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) U-2 reconnaissance aircraft flew more than 250 overflight and peripheral missions in Europe, the USSR, Mideast, and the Far East from June 1956 through 1959. They also had a MASINT mission against Soviet submarines and missiles. Why this level of protection was not available in 1967 is difficult to understand. Essaims operate in a linked system of three active satellites with an in-orbit spare. Himashakti, a signals intelligence platform for operations in mountainous terrain to support constrained logistics and mobility challenges. Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) refers to the collection of electronic communications. The program, which went through several generations, ended when compromised, by Ronald Pelton, in 1981. Egyptian submarines use ArgoSystems/Condor AR-700 series SIGINT for targeting their Harpoon missiles.[54]. Two WJ-8618B(S1) acquisition receivers and a WJ-32850 MANTIS DF system which, together, provide signal intercept and radio direction finding, logistics variant of the light armored vehicle (LAV)-25, COMINT collection subsystem (CCS), including the AN/PRD-12 direction finding set (to be replaced by TOPMAKER) and collection receivers, communications subsystem (CS) using single-channel radio nets are used to link TPCS upgrade outstations with the RadBn TCAC to allow automated processing and dissemination of collected information and ultimate dissemination to the, Ajanta, an early SIGINT and EW platform developed by, Ellora, a SIGINT and EW platform that was developed as part of "Programme Sangraha", Nayan, a COMINT system developed under "Programme Samudrika", This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 16:57. The British Nimrod R1 was a variant of the Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft. [74] The aircraft have recently undergone modernizations, which have included the addition of new MX-15 Optical Electrical Sensors. KEYW Corporation San Angelo, TX. [59], Under the code names HOLYSTONE, PINNACLE, BOLLARD, and BARNACLE,[60][61] began in 1959, US submarines infiltrated Soviet harbors to tap communications cables and gather SIGINT. The participants are Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy and Spain. The GRU's Sixth Directorate uses over 20 different types of aircraft, a fleet of 60 SIGINT collection vessels, satellites, and ground stations to collect signals intelligence. Several submarines have a COMINT system made by US Southwest Research, under the US code name CLUSTER SENTINEL. CIA U-2 Collection of Signals Intelligence, 1956-1960 This is a low-level collection team, which typically has four personnel Access to intelligence information is contingent upon the completion of such training sessions. During the 1991 Gulf War, France's dependence on US assets convince it that it needed its own, or at least European, space-based intelligence. An effort is underway to develop a standard RC-135 open architecture, allowing at least some of the aircraft to be quickly reconfigured. [31] Each combat BCT has an organic military intelligence (MI) company, with improved SIGINT capability. vice city ice cream factory glitch; examples of unconnected transformation in informatica; cladograms gizmo answer key; most valuable items during great depression The SAEC is an armored vehicle carrying ELINT and the Thales XPLORER COMINT to complement EW platforms. The French Air Force will begin retiring its fleet of C-160 transports in 2005. Requirements grew until the Tselina-2 was too heavy for the Tsyklon-3 booster, and the program was switched to the Zenit booster in development. Impairment of a Signals Intelligence collection platform or an unexplained compromise of U.S. Intelligence Operations are examples of This capability, however, is much inferior to the Japanese equivalents. An Airbus replacement for the DC-8 was considered and rejected. Satellite communications generally must be intercepted by large parabolic antennas on the ground, although there are possibilities that aircraft, intelligence satellites, and ships might also intercept. It has not been announced if Spain, as a Helios 2 partner, will have access to French Essaim ELINT. [13][14] On February 15, 1955, the New Zealand Combined Signals Organization (NZCSO) was established to collect signals intelligence and to operate the NR1 station. NSA, with NRO cooperation, operates a number of National Security Agency/Central Security Service (NSA/CSS) sites and other support activities.[26]. They used the AN/WLQ-4 "Sea Nymph" SIGINT system, which may have been too large to fit the Los Angeles class. The U.S. Constitution, federal law, executive order, and regulations of the Executive Branch govern NSA's activities. Clementine, the second generation, was launched in 1999. Impairment of a signals intelligence collection platform or an unexplained compromise of U.S; Intelligence operations are examles of: an anomaly; The internet and social networking services have allowed: all of the above; Elicitation can be best described as a guided conversation with a concealed purpose. In no case, however, are these the only SIGINT antennas on the aircraft.[66]. impairment of a signals intelligence collection platform There is a high level of interoperability among NATO vessels, using the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS). The system achieved full operational readiness with the launch of the last satellite. In 2021/22 Germany will launch the first SARah satellite, which is the successor to SAR LUPE. Also the Bundesnachrichtendienst, Germany's foreign intelligence service, will receive an optical satellite system consisting of three satellites from 2022 onwards. Evelity works like a GPS. Germany operates several tactical ground platforms for SIGINT gathering. [5] Reports by journalists, cited in the European Parliament report, confirm the Domme installation, and also a facility at Alluetts-le-Roi near Paris. It provides 14 channels of digital voice or data, to intelligence (SCI) or general military (GENSER) with a maximum aggregate data rate of 1.544 megabits per second (Mbit/s). Known targets have included Vanuatu, the French overseas departments of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the Solomon Islands. A further clue is provided by Yakima's proximity to a normal satellite receiving station, which lies 100 miles (160km) to the north.". Counterintelligence Awareness and Reporting - PreTest JKO - Quizlet Currently (2019) NIOD Alice Springs strength is approximately 700 AUS and US military and it is operating as an Echelon IV station subordinate to NIOC Maryland (CTF 1060). After having the name compromised when Christopher Boyce sold information to the Soviets, the code name was changed to AQUACADE. As sensitive information is often encrypted, signals intelligence often involves the use of cryptanalysis. <>/ExtGState<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 612 792] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> SS-1 enables the radio reconnaissance teams (RRTs) to target the majority of low-level, single-channel, unencrypted tactical signals of interest used by military, police, insurgents, and other potential hostile forces throughout the world. Both versions flew until 1984, when the Tselina D was set up in a constellation of 6 satellites. The French Defence Minister confirmed the Sarigue would be retired because of high operating costs. Collection Phase Since 1960 the quality and quantity of artifacts made available to intelligence analysts have dramatically increased due to many technical advancements associated with the collection phase of the intelligence cycle. In 19941995, French legislators tried to reduce some of these plans. [41] Thales provided the electronics, and Compagnie Nationale de Navigation built the ship to requirements defined by the Military Intelligence Directorate (DRM) with a planned 30-year lifetime. Beavers, however, had poor capabilities. Signals Intelligence; What is SIGINT & How Does It Work? Human Intelligence (HUMINT) is the collection of information from people. Four geosychronous RHYOLITE satellites were launched in the seventies, with COMINT and TELINT missions. DGA, the French military procurement agency, announced that the constellation of four Essaim ELINT satellites launched with Helios 2A on 18 December 2004 would begin operations in May 2005. The Tangimoana Station was built in 1981 by the Third National Government and began operations in 1983. [80] A reengined version, Sarigue-NG, went into service in 2000. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like select all that apply. Sontag, S.; Drew, C.; Drew, A. L. (1998). [52], ES is not limited to the AN/BLQ-10 alone, but a major improvement in receiving, with an expected 200% improvement in performance with the Type 18I periscope and Integrated Electronics Mast (IEM), especially in the littorals. The current (2019) Joint Military Communications Ground Station (JMCGS) is a SIGnals INTelligence intercept facility located at Kojarena appx 15 Mi east north east of Geraldton, Western Australia. 3 0 obj It retains many of the C3I and ELINT capabilities of the R-99B. France would launch technology demonstrators before a fully operational SIGINT satellite. As an. The members of the NSAwork force charged with foreign intelligence production receive very specific training advising them of their responsibility to protect the privacy of U.S. persons. The collection of signals intelligence (SIGINT) from space has been a critical component of this effort. By James E. David*. espionage is described as: [citation needed], Spain is a financial partner in the French Helios 2 IMINT satellite system. 179 0 obj <>stream The Yakima site, home of Detachment 4 of the 544th, is considered an ECHELON site:[1] "Six satellite antennas have been installed on the site [they are claimed to be] trained on INTELSAT satellites over the Pacific (two satellite antennas) and INTELSAT satellites over the Atlantic, and on INMARSAT Satellite 2. [79], Germany has selected a platform for SIGINT, based on the Global 6000.[81]. If successful at collec-tion, mapping, and predictive analysis, HE360 would provide an unprecedented intelligence offering to both commercial and foreign government customers.10 The proposed commercial RF signal monitoring capability is The vessel entered service in 2006, to replace Bougainville. to HE360, the signals it plans to collect and analyze are not cur-rently available in the commercial sector. [67] The 18 AP-3C Orion were upgraded to include fitting each aircraft with a new Elta EL/M-2022(V)3 radar, a nose-mounted Star Safire III electro-optical and infrared system, "highly capable" signals and electronic intelligence (SIGINT/ELINT) equipment, the UYS 503 acoustic system, a new automatic information system processor, a new navigation system based on two Honeywell H764G Embedded GPS/INUs, a new communications system and other improvements. For example, end users often expected a direction-finding fix to be a point, rather than an area of probability. Spain operates a single 707 variant, modified by Israel and equipped with Israeli and Spanish electronics. "[5] According to Richelson, this is the assignment of Detachment 2 of the 544th Intelligence Group.[28]. Unmanned aircraft serve as a dual signals intelligence (SIGINT) and image intelligence (IMINT) platform, keeping personnel out of . [20] Meanwhile, the Waihopai Station was built by the Fourth Labour Government in April 1988 and began operations on September 8, 1989. The first signals intelligence platforms were listening stations on the ground. [65] [27] The MEWSS PIP provides the ability to detect and evaluate enemy communications emissions, detect and categorize enemy noncommunications emissions (i.e., battlefield radars), determine Lines-of-Bearing (LOBs), and degrade enemy tactical radio communications during amphibious assaults and subsequent operations ashore. Thus, NSAis required to maintain a wide variety of language capabilities as well. The domestic SAAB Grintek Defence (Formally Avitronics) firm installs the Shrike ESM system, covering 218GHz, as does the Israeli Elbit TIMNEX 4 CH ELINT/targeting set, which provides radar warning, and 1.4 to 5 degree DF (depending on frequency). PLEIADES is intended to succeed France's SPOT system is considered part of the Franco-Italian ORFEO (Optical and Radar Federated Earth Observation) programme, being due for launch around 200810. true. The Marines Look To Elevate Signals Intelligence and Electronic Warfare elicitation can be best described as a guided conversation with a concealed purpose. [62], Signals intelligence operational platforms by nation, United Kingdom: strategic ground platforms, United States: strategic ground platforms, US Marine Corps: tactical ground stations, US Army and Marines: tactical ground stations, United States: tactical aircraft platforms, United States: strategic aircraft platforms, European Space Council and current concerns. One exception, the SIGINT auxiliary USSSphinx, generally stayed off the Nicaraguan coast. Originally manufactured by the companies MBB, Nord Aviation and VFW formed the Transall group in 1959 for the development and production of the C-160 for the air forces of France, Germany, South Africa and Turkey. NR1 operated for thirty-three years until being closed down in 1982. After two international incidents, US doctrine is to conduct ship-based SIGINT missions with warships, which can protect themselves as Pueblo and Liberty could not. best tattoo shops in orange county / nepal covid restrictions / impairment of a signals intelligence collection platform. Communications Interface Modules (CIM) provide man-machine interface between the TCAC PIP and other RadBn systems (e.g., team portable collection system, mobile electronic warfare support system) or external intelligence agencies. 1 0 obj The aircraft was fitted with equipment developed by Thompson-CSF, similar to that installed in the earlirt Transall Gabriels. The primary platform for tactical signals intelligence in the Indian Army is based on the Samyukta Electronic Warfare System[9][10] developed by the Defence Electronics Research Laboratory of DRDO. In the vehicle-mounted variant, it can operate while moving; the vehicle also has racks for two AN/VRC-92 SINCGARS Combat Net Radios with backpacks, and carries an antenna mast and other equipment. Germany operates a strategic ground station at the Kommando Strategische Aufklrung (Strategic Reconnaissance Command) of the Bundeswehr, in Gelsdorf, which is responsible for controlling Germany's SAR Lupe and its replacement, the SARah, system and analysing the retrieved data. They were code-named after female sex symbols, such as RAQUEL, FARRAH, BRIDGET and MARILYN. Each of those battalions is 1/3 SIGINT; the Army expects to have more than 7,000 new MI soldiers by 2013. Even more advanced ASA equipment was on P-2V aircraft borrowed from the Navy, and called CEFLIEN LION or CRAZY CAT platforms. In addition to the SIGINT payload, the aircraft has a Tamam Stabilised Long Range Observation System (LOROS) high-resolution TV camera and recording systems. On April 27, 1979, the Military Industrial Commission, VPK, officially approved the Zenit as a launcher for the Tselina-2 satellite. [citation needed]. 2 0 obj [37], Subordinate to Radio Battalions, US Marines have a multifunction AN/MLQ-36 Mobile Electronic Warfare Support System that gives the operators limited armor protection. Two first-generation Helios satellites, with 1-meter optical imaging resolution and no infrared capability, were launched in 1995 and 1999. [94] In June 1981, Stone Marion, a civilian who was the former Director of the Paris Airport, was named to the head of the SDECE but met with opposition, as a socialist and civilian, from inside SDECE. There was additional consensus on merging the WEU into the EU. [citation needed] Most importantly, each NSAemployee is charged with knowing, understanding, and obeying to the fullest the laws of the nation. DGA officials note that Essaim has greater capacity than its predecessors and will provide some operational data. ="ht#yh `f Far beyond that, however, many submarines will penetrate hostile areas, raise SIGINT receiver masts, usually with some type of radar-observant covering, and listen. The TROJAN SPIRIT LITE is fielded in three versions: Both TROJAN SPIRIT II and TROJAN SPIRIT LITE will transition to the Warfighter Information Network-Tactical (WIN-T). (ii) Bulk collection of signals intelligence. As well as an Elta EL/L-8300 SIGINT system,[84] In the baseline version, this multi-operator Elta system contains 0.5 to 18GHz ELINT (0.03 to 40GHz as an option), 20 to 1,000MHz (2 to 1,500MHz as an option) COMINT, and control and analysis sub-systems. Los Angeles-class submarines have modernized and smaller ELINT, the AN/WLR-18 "Classic Salmon" for lower frequencies and the AN/WSQ-5 "Cluster Spectator" for higher frequencies. There are variants, among the classes, of a radar antenna, interferometric direction finder, COMINT receiver. The first US SIGINT satellites, Galactic Radiation and Background (GRAB) were launched in 1960 by the Naval Research Laboratory, but the existence of the program was highly classified. Signals Intelligence Activities While protecting our nation through the collection of signals intelligence (SIGINT) as authorized by law and policy, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), referred to herein as the "Agency," is committed to protecting the personal information of all people regardless of their nationality. Prof. Desmont Ball identified Chinese the first major airborne SIGINT platforms as the four-turboprop EY-8, a variant of the Russian An-12 'Cub' as China's main ELINT and reconnaissance aircraft a decade ago. How to use impairment in a sentence. Journalist Duncan Campbell alleges that Ayios Nikolaos Station on Cyprus is a British SigInt collection installation. This site, which includes at least 11 collection antennas, seven of them directed at Atlantic satellites, is clearly as extensive and capable as sites in the UKUSA network. Additional nations have launched IMINT satellites; SIGINT seems to be a lesser priority, with radar MASINT often a higher priority. Pine Gap facility is located approximately 12 Mi west south west of Alice Springs, Northern Territory. John Pike states the Socialist government, elected in May 1981 and led President Franois Mitterrand were unknown at the time of his election in May 1981 marked the attempt to put SDECE under civilian control. [21], According to the academic Teresia Teaiwa, New Zealand, as part of the UKUSA alliance, collected and analyzed low frequency radio and international satellite communications from the South Pacific region. In response, the French government sought Italian and Spanish funding in, and cooperation with, the HELIOS 1 program. The NSAconducts extensive training of its employees to ensure that the workforce is aware and understands the regulations governing NSAactivities. Open architecture design supports third-party special signals applications What defines the intelligence role of NSA? ", "Reporter's Notebook: Space intelligence technology's embattled frontier", "Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 215.2, Signals Intelligence", "National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. lSTfo In 2007 the AUS and US authorities approved a Memorandum Of Understanding (MOU) stipulating the expansion and future rules of cooperation for the JMCGS. Belgium is a MUSIS partner, which should be considered in assessing the potential of information sharing among the partners.[93]. [45], The Navy's hydrographic vessel HMNZSMonowai was also used by the GCSB to intercept Fijian military radio communications during the 1987 Fijian coups d'tat. Early and ongoing cross-functional coordination between accounting, valuation and tax . NSAneeds to collect and understand the information, interpret it, and get it to our customers in time for them to take action. Of the three-vessel Seawolf class, USSJimmy Carter also is of extended length for intelligence systems and special operations. The digital replacement, in French service, is the ARUR-13. JUMPSEAT ELINT satellites, using a Moliyna orbit, started launching in 1975. Signals intelligence by alliances, nations and industries, New Zealand Combined Signals Organization, Government Communications Security Bureau, Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station, Joint Tactical Information Distribution System, Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage, China's anti-satellite (ASAT) test in 2007, "Report on the existence of a global system for the interception of private and commercial communications (ECHELON interception system)", "Information Warfare (IW): Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), Electronic Warfare (EW) and Cyber-Warfare. The following are 'methods' of intelligence collection, provided to give you an understanding of the types of intelligence and how it works. Danish subs had the UK Racal/Thales Sea Lion precision DF system. As a defense agency, NSA operates under the authority of the Department of Defense. Australia also has ordered this aircraft. [93][99], SAR is usually considered a MASINT sensor, but the significance here is that Germany obtains access to French satellite ELINT. Explained: How modern technology is giving spy balloons a new life It had a distinctive sideways looking airborne radar (SLAR) in a "canoe" under the fuselage, as well as large rectangular antenna arrays at each wingtip. At the same time, signals intelligence activities and the possibility that such activities may be improperly disclosed to the . 6PV@=y1iNSGJo:B fEgnUSgB ,9 hFxc/~(-kADT)z@U; 1dzw!X*u\Ge,z{^dmFwX"1` s[Da#RWR$Ys6n=mK=O^@4XDcxCaqP+ f}KV'}(;^s2{Tw4yiv3${qy)`p.+",#Cy>qU%HB;md=JM5@IS?Yf4*Gva:'DZHsC": This was a major change in British policy toward the EU, in that Britain had wanted the EU to stay out of defense issues, leaving them to NATO. The MEWSS PIP and future enhancements will provide the capability to exploit new and sophisticated enemy electronic emissions and conduct Electronic Attack (EA) in support of existing and planned national, theater, Fleet, and MAGTF SIGINT/EW operations.[38]. Right there in the quote, it lists three subdisciplines of SIGINT. Former press and media statements [2] that the facility is being operated by the CIA have never been confirmed; there is no proof of US civilian presence at JDFPG. They also sought German involvement in Helios 2. What is Signals Intelligence? - Sandboxx the act of impairing something or the state or condition of being impaired : diminishment or loss of function or ability See the full definition The goals of the FBI's counterintelligence work are to: Protect the secrets of the U.S. Intelligence Community. According to the current and former officials, the Directorate for Signals Intelligence, or DFS, employs about 1,700 people and has at least six surveillance facilities that eavesdrop around the . It is mostly used to gain intelligence from foreign targets, with the aim of obtaining . The F-35 is not the only fighter-sized intelligence "sponge" around. The aircraft has been reported around the western edge of North Africa, the Western Sahara and the Mediterranean.[66]. Three new sensors have been installed for aircraft position and attitude control: an inertial reference unit (IRU), an attitude and heading reference unit (AHRU), and a global positioning system (GPS). While Cuba had traditionally been a Soviet client, it both has been developing indigenous capabilities, including equipment design and manufacture, as well as having Chinese-operated stations on its soil. The R-99A is an Airborne Early Warning & Control aircraft (AWACS) equipped with the Erieye airborne radar from Ericsson AB of Sweden. The name of the program was changed to Poppy (satellite) after the National Reconnaissance Office was created in 1962.
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